Useful Literature

Clement, 2019

Abstract: The field of outdoor adventure education was born in the Western world in the twentieth century because of several specific factors. These factors include, but are not limited to: changing Euro-American attitudes toward wilderness, Kurt Hahn's character education schools and the pervasiveness of white supremacy. Today, outdoor adventure education is widely popular among the white middle class. According to current instructors in the field, outdoor education is for the purpose of individual development, learning in a wilderness setting and teaching students how to be environmental stewards for wild places. These purposes result from underlying, sometimes false, assumptions about the nature of wilderness education and the students themselves. Based on these assumptions, outdoor education – as it is practiced today – perpetuates the oppression it was built on. Dismantling and eliminating this oppression can be started by reframing field instructor training to be less focused on physical risk management and technical skills, and more focused on anti-racist and social justice skills.

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Amor, Haile, and Varela

It's easy to assume that most of us have regular access to some form of nature, even if we don't utilize that access. There are city parks and public beaches, hiking trails and sledding hills, rocks to climb and fields in which to lie under the stars. But the reality is that outdoor recreation is inaccessible to large portions of the U.S. population—particularly low-income communities and communities of color. This is true for a variety of reasons: Urban and industrial development has led to fewer forests and wetlands; air and water pollution are concentrated in low-income areas; and local and national parks can be unwelcoming to visitors of color and inaccessible to those without cars or those with disabilities. And what the Center for American Progress calls "the nature gap" erases the histories of Indigenous Americans and makes places that everyone should be able to enjoy out of reach for too many.

The writings, teachings, and activism of Jolie Varela, Rahawa Haile, and Bani Amor collectively consider the ideal of the great outdoors and illustrate the importance of equitable access. We recently listened in as these thoughtful educators discussed what nature can tell us about our history—and our future.

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Johnson, 2010

Abstract: For Indigenous peoples, knowledge and science are written onto the landscapes our languages ‘‘talk into being'' through the ‘‘individual and collective consciousness of our communities (Cajete 2000, 284).'' Our landscapes are the storied histories, cosmogonies, philosophies and sciences of those Indigenous knowledges which are increasingly being pushed aside by the ‘gray uniformity' of globalization and its progenitor, European colonization. It is within storied places that we can still glimpse alternatives to this gray uniformity of globalization which brings with it a rhetoric of capitalism, modernism, abstract space and Western science. It is this rhetoric produced through globalization which erases the storied landscapes, destroying the libraries embedded within Indigenous toponyms, creating a terra nullius: an empty land awaiting a colonial/neo-colonial history and economy. As Paulo Freire has challenged us to see, critical consciousness requires us to ‘‘read our world,'' decoding the images of our own concrete, situated experiences with the world (Freire and Macedo 1987, 35). A critical pedagogy of place recognizes the concrete experiences of communities grounded in shared histories, stories and challenges based within a politics of place. A critical pedagogy of place seeks to decolonize and reinhabit the storied landscape through ‘reading' the ways in which Indigenous peoples' places and environment have been injured and exploited. This paper seeks to discuss how through reading the places in the world as ‘political texts,' one may engage in reflection and praxis in order to understand, and where necessary, to change the world.

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Tzou et al., 2010

Abstract: A growing set of research projects in science education are working from the assumption that science literacy can be constituted as being centrally focused on issues of social justice for the youth and for communities involved in such work (Calabrese Barton, 2003). Despite well-established links among race, class, and exposure to environmental health risks, environmental education is failing to take into account the environmental issues pertinent to youth who are most impacted by the most pressing modern environmental issues (Lewis & James, 1995). We therefore need to better understand how the places where environmental education occurs are themselves sites of cultural conflict that position youth in ways that limit access to certain learning pathways. Here, we ask the following questions: (a) How are places constructed for and by youth in traditional environmental education? and (b) What are implications of this construction of place for the design of instruction that connects youths' sense of place with environmental learning? Through ethnographic analysis we have identified two social processes in how place gets constructed for and by youth: through multifaceted and juxtaposed narratives and through the social positioning of youth, by themselves and other social actors, in places where environmental education occurs.

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Johnson et al., 2020

Abstract: We combined tenets of learning communities and place-based learning to develop an innova- tive first-year program for STEM students. Using a quasi-experimental design, we found that participants in the place-based learning community had a stronger sense of belonging, improved academic performance, and increased first-year persistence relative to a matched reference group. We also showed that participation narrowed equity gaps in first-year out- comes for students underrepresented in the sciences. A sense of place arises not just from a location, but from interrelationships between people and the natural world, and these results suggest organizing learning around place can promote inclusive student success.

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Semken et al., 2017

Abstract: Place-based education (PBE) is a situated, context-rich, transdisciplinary teaching and learning modality distinguished by its unequivocal relationship to place, which is any locality that people have imbued with meanings and personal attachments through actual or vicarious experiences. As an observational and historical science, geoscience is highly dependent on place, and place-based curricula and instructional methods apply to geoscience education. The sense of place operationalizes the human connection to place and functions as a definable and measurable learning outcome for PBE. Although PBE is rooted in historic and indigenous teaching philosophies, it has gained particular notice and traction in concert with more recent interest in environmental education, sustainability, and diversity in geoscience. This paper presents a current review of theory and research methods that have directly informed development of curriculum and instruction in, authentic assessment of, and implementation of PBE in geoscience sensu lato (Earth-system and environmental sciences); a survey of place-based teaching in geoscience currently or recently practiced across different grade levels and situated in different places, regions, and cultures; information about teaching and assessment methods for those who may be interested in adopting the place-based modality; and suggested future directions for research, practice, and assessment in PBE in geoscience.

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Semken, 2005

Abstract: Places are localities given meaning by human experiences in them. Sense of place refers to a set of meanings of and attachments to places that are held by individuals or by groups. The cultures and educational philosophies of American Indian and Alaska Native peoples reflect rich senses of the places that make up their traditional homelands. However, sense of place does not manifest itself in proportionate enrollments in undergraduate geoscience by American Indians and Alaska Natives. This is because mainstream geoscience teaching emphasizes global syntheses over exploration and in-depth understanding of places that have prior meaning for Indigenous students, and may even depict such places in culturally-inappropriate ways. Many teachers and researchers with experience in Native educational systems recommend a greater emphasis on the study of local places, synthesis of local cultural knowledge, and community-directed activities in science education. Such a "place-based" approach is used by a small number of school systems, nearly all outside of Native communities. Place-based geoscience teaching could potentially enhance science literacy among American Indian, Alaska Native, and other underrepresented minority students, and bring more of them into the geoscience profession. However, this hypothesis has not yet been rigorously tested. Empirical and descriptive studies of place attachment and meaning among different student populations, and clearer definition of place-based teaching, are prerequisite to more authentic place-based geoscience courses and programs. Five characteristics of place-based geoscience teaching are identified here and illustrated with suggestions for implementation in diverse educational settings.

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Sloan, 2013

The lived experiences of students engaged in school gardens as learning places are interconnected with a myriad of multicultural educational opportunities. Teachers can use plants being grown in the garden as a cultural timeline linking the present to the past.

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Vestal, 2016 (Sierra Club)

It's fitting that America's most famous wilderness guide, Sacajawea of the Lemhi Shoshone tribe, was a woman of color. But it's also tragic that throughout American history, ethnic minorities have so often been underrepresented or intentionally excluded from the outdoors. Today, research from industry groups like the Outdoor Foundation bears out the conclusion that minority groups simply don't go outside. Consider this data point: in any given year, less than half of African American adolescents age 13 to 17 will participate in even one outdoor recreation activity. The issue isn't that people of color in America don't care about nature or environmental issues. In fact, surveys of racial minorities consistently show they are more concerned than whites about climate change and more supportive of policies to fix it. So what is keeping people of color from participating in outdoor recreation and enjoying its benefits? As activist and author Glenn Nelson writes, "Because the outdoors remains a largely white domain, it is up to white America to invite communities of color in, to enlist us as allies." Here are a few proven strategies for outings leaders (and well-meaning white folks) who want to be part of the solution.

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Winter et al., 2020

Abstract: Despite an increasingly ethnically and racially diverse population in the United States (U.S.), growing evidence indicates that minorities are underrepresented in national forest visitation. Many reasons for continuing underrepresentation have been examined, involving research reaching back multiple decades. In the current study, a random sample of residents (n = 1977) from four large metropolitan statistical areas in California was involved in a telephone survey about forest visitation. Analysis revealed a continuing pattern of inequities in lifetime visitation to a national forest, as well as recency of visitation. Constraints to national forest visitation show similarities among groups. Lack of time was the most often mentioned constraint, with resource-related constraints more frequently cited by minority respondents. In contrast to prior studies, a lack of information or concerns about discrimination were not cited by survey respondents, though the open-ended approach to top constraints may underpin some of this variation from prior research. The primary information source for outdoor recreation used most frequently and most trusted was the Internet, followed closely by social networks (family and friends). In the presentation of U.S. outdoor recreation information, natural resource management agencies, use groups, and opportunity providers would benefit from incorporating culturally relevant messaging and images to affirm the message of inclusion and welcome.

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Mock, 2014

Dorceta Taylor, professor at the University of Michigan's School of Natural Resources and Environment, talks about her new report about environmental groups' failure to diversify.

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Wong, 2019

Abstract: Outdoor Adventures (OA) at the University of San Diego bridges the industries of outdoor education and higher education. This action research investigates the constructions of gender that inform programming and relationship building within OA. Through a survey and focus groups, I collected data from OA professional staff and student leaders. The purpose of this research was to explore how different genders engage with experiential learning in an outdoor setting through a lens of queer theory, by evaluating the engagement of OA professional staff and participants. My findings indicate that the constructs of gender inform the ways students experience their capacity for leadership, authenticity and belonging in Outdoor Adventures. From the data collected, I recommended that Outdoor Adventures and the University of San Diego continue to pursue gender inclusive practices that center the rights of all genders.

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Schwartz and Corkery, 2019

Abstract: This study investigated the barriers to participation with outdoor programs for women and people of color, who traditionally participate in outdoor recreation at disproportionately low levels. The study begins with a synopsis of research on outdoor recreation constraints for women and people of color. A survey of students (n = 318) at a midsized public university in the Southeast provided data on differences of perceptions of constraints. Women were found to be significantly more affected by socialization/subculture barriers and economic/access barriers than men. Focus groups with women and people of color further suggest that both women and people of color are influenced by socialization/subculture barriers and economic/access barriers and that discrimination plays a role in reduced participation by students of color. Suggestions are made for ways outdoor programs may attempt to mitigate these barriers for underrepresented groups.

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Ernst, 2014

Abstract: In efforts to encourage use of natural outdoor settings as learning environments within early childhood education, survey research was conducted with 46 early childhood educators from northern Minnesota (United States) to explore their beliefs and practices regarding natural outdoor settings, as well investigate predictors of and barriers to the educational use of these settings. Of the beliefs measured, only two were signi!cantly related to frequency of use of natural outdoor settings: belief regarding dif!culty in using natural outdoor settings and belief regarding their relationship to nature. The strongest predictor of use was belief regarding dif!culty in using natural outdoor settings, accounting for 67.7% of the variance in the regression model. Results indicate primary barriers to be lack of walking access to natural outdoor settings, lack of time, winter weather, and safety concerns. These !ndings suggest efforts to increase early childhood educators' use of natural outdoor settings should not focus on in"u- encing their beliefs about the value of using natural outdoor settings in early childhood education, but instead on reducing barriers, thereby making the use of these settings seem more feasible.

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Giles et al., 2020

Abstract: Fieldwork is an integral part of geoscience subjects, but changing career pathways and student demographics have major implications for the future of compulsory fieldwork. The ways in which fieldwork is taught and the learning outcomes it fulfils urgently need updating.

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Wright and Kotowski, 2021

Abstract: The use of active-learning strategies to teach out-of-school time (OST) geoscience courses has not significantly increased the number of racially minoritized students that pursue Geoscience. Studies hypothesize that significantly more minoritized students would pursue Geoscience if courses better resemble the students' Collectivist cultures. We test this hypothesis by using pre-course, post-course, and after-activity surveys to quantify minoritized student engagement, perception of, and interest in pursuing Geoscience during two OST courses taught with learning activities that emphasize Individualism (individual-learning) or Collectivism (group-learning). After-activity surveys show that minoritized students (n = 68) prefer group- learning activities. Students rated group activities as more difficult and fun. Students also believed they learned more during group-learning activities. Their engagement and interest in lessons varied more widely during individual-learning activities. Pre- and post-course surveys reveal that the number of students interested in pursuing STEM and Geoscience increased from 43 to 54 and 11 to 16, respectively. The students' perceptions of geoscientists broadened to include scientists who study not only the Earth but also its history and governing processes. We interpret these results to mean that (1) educators may employ group-learning activities when they desire to increase task difficulty without sacrificing student engagement, and (2) individual- learning activities are less reliable means of engaging minoritized students. Our results imply that incorporating more group-learning activities in the classroom and field may improve Geoscience diversity since group-learning activities resonate more strongly with minoritized students' cultures.

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Riggs, 2004

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to propose a framework drawing on theoretical and empirical science education research that explains the common prominent field-based components of the handful of persistent and successful Earth science education programs designed for indigenous communities in North America. These programs are primarily designed for adult learners, either in a postsecondary or in a technical education setting and all include active collaboration between local indigenous communities and geoscientists from nearby universities. Successful Earth science curricula for indigenous learners share in common an explicit emphasis on outdoor education, a place and problem-based structure, and the explicit inclusion of traditional indigenous knowledge in the instruction. Programs sharing this basic design have proven successful and popular for a wide range of indigenous cultures across North America. We present an analysis of common field-based elements to yield insight into indigenous Earth science education. We provide an explanation for the success of this design based in research on field-based learning, Native American learning styles research, and theoretical and empirical research into the nature and structure of indigenous knowledge. We also provide future research directions that can test and further refine our understanding of best practices in indigenous Earth science education.

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Ricci and Riggs, 2019

Abstract: This qualitative study examines the experience of 12 Native American youth who participated in culturally appropriate geoscience summer programs throughout California. These programs have been shown to change participating youths' perceptions of science. After the programs, the youth are more likely to describe science as something tribes use to manage natural resources and have been using for a long time, something that is not only learned in classrooms, and that they can live a cultural way of life and still be scientists. In this study we used hermeneutic phenomenology to understand the experience of the participating youth. Semistructured, life-world, pre- and postinterviews were designed to elucidate participants' program experience. These were coded and analyzed following phenomenological methodology. Our analysis shows the function of program elements in providing a supportive path for student participants into science building on a base of cultural and individual assets. The results suggest that having a supportive community that is familial, supportive, and empowering, and in which youth can express their culture while participating in outdoor programming provides the foundation to approach the science content. Moreover, positive connections between nature and our science content are made in this context, broadening participants' concept of science to include outdoor and field sciences. This provides scaffolding in which these new conceptions of science as nature, and nature as science, can be applied to participants' lives outside of the program, and also increases a sense of science identity and an accompanying shift in aspirations to become tribal science leaders.

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Egger, 2019

Abstract: Introductory geoscience courses enroll hundreds of thousands of students a year, most of whom do not major in the geosciences. For many, including future K–12 teachers, an introductory course is the only place they will encounter Earth science at the college level. New standards for K–12 science education have profound implications for teacher preparation, particularly in Earth science. The new standards call for taking a systems approach, highlighting how humans interact with Earth, making use of science and engi- neering practices, and engaging students in discourse. Analysis of responses to the National Geoscience Faculty Survey (n = 813 in 2004; n = 994 in 2009; n = 972 in 2012; and n = 1074 in 2016) and data from 152 syllabi suggest that a systems approach is not widespread and human interactions with Earth are not emphasized, and that most instructors engage students in mostly low cognitive-level practices. While the use of discourse practices has increased over time, these and other active learning components are not yet widely included in students' grades. These results suggest that courses are not currently well-aligned with teacher needs. However, instructors have access to many research-based instructional resources to support them in making changes that will help all students—including future teachers.

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LaDue et al., 2021

Abstract: Active learning research emerged from the undergraduate STEM education communities of practice, some of whom identify as discipline-based education researchers (DBER). Consequently, current frameworks of active learning are largely inductive and based on emergent patterns observed in undergraduate teaching and learning. Alternatively, classic learning theories historically originate from the educational psychology community, which often takes a theory-driven, or deductive research approach. The broader transdisciplinary education research community is now struggling to reconcile the two. That is, how is a theory of active learning distinct from other theories of knowledge construction? We discuss the underpinnings of active learning in the geosciences, drawing upon extant literature from the educational psychology community on engagement. Based on Sinatra et al. engagement framework, we propose a model for active learning in the geosciences with four dimensions: behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and agentic. We then connect existing literature from the geoscience education community to the model to demonstrate the current gaps in our literature base and opportunities to move the active learning geoscience education research (GER) forward. We propose the following recommendations for future investigation of active learning in the geosciences: (1) connect future GER to our model of active learning in the geosciences, (2) measure more than content learning, (3) document research methods and outcomes with effect sizes to accumulate evidence, and (4) prioritize research on dimensions of active learning essential to the geosciences.

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Abeyta et al., 2021

Abstract: Fieldwork is considered critical to developing technical skills in geoscience education, and typical undergraduate degrees require more than 30 days in the field. Tuition costs of enrolling in field camp are acknowledged as a barrier to participation in geosciences; however, the cost of participation in field activities may also include the cost of personal field gear (e.g., hiking boots, backpacks), travel, lost wages, and dependent care. To neutralize impacts of systemic bias on the future geoscience workforce, it is imperative that we (a) examine how the cost of field work presents barriers to participation, and (b) intentionally direct financial resources towards dismantling these barriers. We show that the financial burden associated with a week-long field endeavor, excluding potential tuition costs and including personal field gear, domestic air travel, lodging, dependent care, and lost wages range from 1,697 to 2,601 U.S. dollars (USD), and can be as large as 3,824 USD. This sum is likely to be out of reach for individuals from low-income groups, and represents a fundamental barrier to diversifying participation in our field. Budgets for inclusive field research and education must account for and accommodate these financial challenges to broader participation.

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Gilley et al., 2015

Abstract: The geosciences benefit from diverse student perspectives and backgrounds, but the field-based learning requirements pose barriers to students with disabilities. If carefully designed, fieldwork can be made accessible while still meeting expectations of academic rigour.

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Anadu et al., 2020

Institutions should heed these recommendations to prepare faculty and students for discrimination and racialized violence before traveling and to protect them once in the field.

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Greene et al., 2021

Abstract: Ensuring taught fieldwork is a positive, generative, collective, and valuable experience for all participants requires considerations beyond course content. To guarantee safety and belonging, participants' identities (backgrounds and protected characteristics) must be considered as a part of fieldwork planning and implementation. Furthermore, getting fieldwork right is an important step in disrupting the ongoing cycle of exclusion of participants from marginalised demographics. This document aims to provide those involved in field teaching in Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences (GEES) disciplines with a brief overview about how identity affects experiences of taught fieldwork, as well as some general tips and a practical checklist for creating a safe learning environment for all staff, demonstrators, and students in the field.

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Goodrid, 2018

Abstract: This thesis examines the racial power imbalances that exists within the outdoor recreation industry. Despite participation rates being quantified, limited research explores the lived experiences and perspective of people of color. In this study, I explore the socio- historical development of outdoor recreational spaces, existing environmental habitus and African Americans lived experiences in outdoor recreation. To emphasize the voice of the participants, twelve African American millennials were interviewed. Questions in the interviews revolved around their perception of outdoor recreation and personal experiences while participating in outdoor recreation. Three overarching themes emerged from their stories, i) the typology of outdoor recreation, ii) outdoor recreation as a White activity and, iii) the role of environmental trauma. Upon exploring these themes, the conclusion was made that the participants did connect the socio-historical development of outdoor recreational spaces, existing environmental habitus and their lived experiences in outdoor recreation. Their connection led me to the conclusion that the low participation rates of African Americans in outdoor recreation is a complicated social phenomena that is connected to multiple facets of oppression. I then broke these facets of oppression into three tiers, i), the construction and maintenance of outdoor recreation as a White activity, and the Whiteness that is embedded deeply within the outdoor recreation configuration, ii), the history of financial and economic marginalization that communities of color have endured in the United States and iii), the environmental trauma that African Americans have experienced in outdoor settings throughout American history. These three tiers together make the participation in outdoor recreation a different and complicated experience for African Americans.

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Stokes et al., 2019

Abstract: Fieldwork is a fundamental characteristic of geoscience. However, the requirement to participate in fieldwork can present significant barriers to students with disabilities engaging with geoscience as an academic discipline and subsequently progressing on to a career as a geoscience professional. A qualitative investigation into the lived experiences of 15 students with disabilities participating in a one-day field workshop during the 2014 Geological Society of America Annual Meeting provides critical insights into the aspects of field- work design and delivery that contribute to an accessible and inclusive field experience. Qualitative analysis of pre- and post-fieldwork focus groups and direct observations of participants reveal that multisensory engagement, consideration for pace and timing, flexibility of access and delivery, and a focus on shared tasks are essential to effective pedagogic design. Further, fieldwork can support the social processes necessary for students with disabilities to become fully integrated into learning communities, while also promoting self-advocacy by providing an opportunity to develop and practice self-advocacy skills. Our findings show that students with sensory, cognitive, and physical disabilities can achieve full participation in field activities but also highlight the need for a change in perceptions among geoscience faculty and professionals, if stu- dents with disabilities are to be motivated to progress through the geoscience academic pipeline and achieve professional employment.

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Carabajal and Atchison, 2020

Abstract: This study examines current accessible field-based instructional strategies across geoscience departments in the United States that support students with visual, hearing, and mobility disabilities. A qualitative questionnaire was administered to geoscience instructors from over 160 US geology departments. Outcomes from the data analysis were used to categorize accessible instructional practices into three distinct pedagogical methods: modifications, accommodations, and options for accessible instructional design. Utilizing the lens of critical disability theory, we then investigated how the identified teaching practices varied in inclusion, as some strategies can often be more exclusionary towards individual students with disabilities. Although from a US perspective, the outcomes of this study offer practical suggestions for providing accessible and inclusive field experiences that may inform a global geoscience instructional context.

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